Foot Strike Patterns

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AThis sudden collision force transmits rapid shockwaves upward through the skeletal structures of the lower leg.
BThose who land on the heel, known as rearfoot strikers, generate a sharp impact transient during initial ground contact.
CIn contrast, forefoot strikers utilise the ankle joint and calf complex to absorb such loads more gradually, reducing tibial shock.
DDistance runners typically exhibit distinct foot strike patterns, landing either on the heel or on the ball of the foot.

Questions 2–5

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The Spring Mass Model

AConsequently, this passive recoil significantly reduces the metabolic cost of muscular work over long distances.
BIn this conceptual framework, the body's centre of mass is treated as a single point supported by a compliant leg spring.
CAs the runner lands, this leg spring compresses to store mechanical energy within the tendons and ligaments.
DHuman running can be mathematically simplified as a bouncing spring-mass system.
EMuch of that stored elastic strain energy is subsequently recoiled to propel the body forward during toe-off.

Cadence and Braking Forces

ATo counteract this braking effect, specialists recommend elevating step cadence rather than exaggerating forward leg reach.
BForward running velocity is primarily governed by the mathematical product of step cadence and stride length.
CSuch premature foot placement generates a substantial braking impulse that actively impedes forward horizontal momentum and increases joint stress.
DWhen striving to run faster, inexperienced athletes frequently overstride by planting the leading foot well ahead of their centre of mass.

The Plantar Windlass Mechanism

AThis increased tension draws the calcaneus toward the metatarsal heads, raising and stiffening the medial longitudinal arch.
BDuring the terminal stance phase, the upward extension of the toes tightens the thick plantar fascia beneath the arch.
CThe human foot functions not merely as a shock absorber, but also as a rigid lever for propulsion.
DThis functional transformation relies heavily on a biomechanical process known as the windlass mechanism.
EAs a result, the foot becomes a stable platform capable of efficiently transmitting propulsive forces into the running surface.

Arm Swing Mechanics

AWithout this opposing upper-body motion, the runner's torso would undergo excessive axial rotation with every step.
BAlthough distance running is predominantly driven by the lower limbs, the upper body plays an essential stabilising role during locomotion.
CIn particular, the rhythmic swinging of the arms generates torques that directly counterbalance the angular momentum produced by alternating leg strides.
DSuppressing these unwanted rotational deviations preserves forward alignment, thereby minimising the overall metabolic cost of locomotion.

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