IELTS vocabulary for government, law and crime

petty theft

stealing things of small value

In a number of countries, offenders convicted of minor crimes such as petty theft or vandalism are ordered to carry out unpaid work in the community rather than serve a prison sentence.

make amends

to do something good to make up for harm you have caused

The most important benefit is that community service allows offenders to make amends in a visible and practical way.

lenient

less strict or severe than expected

Some members of the public regard unpaid work as a lenient option that fails to reflect the seriousness of crime, which may undermine confidence in the justice system.

undermine

to gradually weaken something

Some members of the public regard unpaid work as a lenient option that fails to reflect the seriousness of crime, which may undermine confidence in the justice system.

punitive

intended as a punishment

There is also a risk that poorly supervised schemes allow offenders to miss sessions or treat the work casually, in which case the sentence loses both its punitive and its rehabilitative value.

rehabilitative

helping someone return to a normal, law-abiding life

There is also a risk that poorly supervised schemes allow offenders to miss sessions or treat the work casually, in which case the sentence loses both its punitive and its rehabilitative value.

constructive

useful and likely to lead to improvement

Provided that the work is properly supervised and that missed sessions lead to stricter penalties, unpaid community work offers a cheaper, fairer and more constructive response to minor crime than prison.

safeguards

measures that protect against harm or misuse

I agree with the principle of compulsory voting, as it produces governments that reflect the whole population, although I believe it must be accompanied by safeguards for individual choice.

representative

reflecting the views of all the people in a group

The strongest argument in favour of compulsory voting is that it makes election results more representative.

turnout

the number of people who vote in an election

Where voting is voluntary, turnout is often much lower among young people, those on low incomes and those who feel ignored by politicians.

electorate

all the people who are allowed to vote

If everyone is required to take part, politicians must appeal to the entire electorate, which encourages policies that serve society as a whole.

civic participation

taking part in the public life of a community or country

A further benefit is that compulsory voting can strengthen a culture of civic participation.

ballot papers

the forms on which people mark their vote

Ballot papers can include an option to reject all candidates, so that nobody is forced to support a party, and fines for not voting can remain small.

dissatisfaction

a feeling of not being pleased with something

Provided that citizens can still register their dissatisfaction, the benefits for democracy outweigh the limited restriction on personal freedom.

at the wheel

while driving a vehicle

Traffic offences such as speeding and using a mobile phone at the wheel are common, and there is debate about how severely they should be punished.

wrongdoing

illegal or dishonest behaviour

Those who favour fines argue that most traffic offences are minor mistakes rather than deliberate wrongdoing.

out of proportion

much too large or serious compared with the cause

A driver who travels slightly above the limit on an empty road has not necessarily put anyone at risk, and removing their licence could have consequences far out of proportion to the offence.

motorists

people who drive cars

Furthermore, behaviour such as driving far above the speed limit near a school or texting while driving can easily kill pedestrians or other motorists.

conduct

the way a person behaves

Losing the right to drive sends a much stronger message that such conduct is unacceptable, and it physically removes dangerous drivers from the road, which protects the public in a way that a fine cannot.

graduated

increasing in stages according to seriousness

Overall, I believe the most sensible approach is a graduated system.

recklessly

without caring about danger or the effects of one's actions

A first minor offence should be met with a fine and perhaps a short awareness course, but drivers who offend repeatedly or behave recklessly should face a ban, since their freedom to drive matters less than the safety of other road users.

terrestrial

relating to the Earth rather than outer space

Conversely, many argue that the vast sums spent on extraterrestrial endeavours could be more effectively utilised to tackle humanitarian crises.

catalyst

something that causes or accelerates a significant change

Proponents of space programmes argue that such investments act as a catalyst for technological progress.

extraterrestrial

existing or coming from outside the planet Earth

Conversely, many argue that the vast sums spent on extraterrestrial endeavours could be more effectively utilised to tackle humanitarian crises.

imperative

an essential or urgent requirement for action

With millions suffering from food insecurity and the accelerating threat of climate change, critics suggest that governments have a moral imperative to focus on terrestrial stability.

systemic

relating to an entire system or global structure

I believe that governments should balance their budgets by prioritising the resolution of systemic issues at home before committing excessive resources to the exploration of space.

subsidise

to support financially by paying part of costs

For example, the billions of dollars required for a single Mars mission could instead fund large-scale reforestation projects or subsidise renewable energy infrastructure, addressing the root causes of environmental degradation directly.

degradation

the process of declining to a lower state

For example, the billions of dollars required for a single Mars mission could instead fund large-scale reforestation projects or subsidise renewable energy infrastructure, addressing the root causes of environmental degradation directly.

tangible

clear and definite enough to be easily seen

For instance, satellite technology, originally developed for orbital missions, has revolutionised global weather forecasting and disaster management, proving that space research can offer tangible improvements to society.

disproportionately

to a greater degree than is fair or expected

Critics also point out that audiences for some art forms are disproportionately wealthy, so public subsidy may effectively reduce ticket prices for people who could afford to pay more.

subsidy

money given by the government to reduce the cost of something

Critics also point out that audiences for some art forms are disproportionately wealthy, so public subsidy may effectively reduce ticket prices for people who could afford to pay more.

sponsorship

financial support from a company in return for publicity

From this perspective, the arts should rely on ticket sales, sponsorship and private donations.

accessible

easy for people to reach, use or afford

Without subsidy, many theatres and museums would have to charge high prices or close, making culture accessible only to those with money.

thriving

successful and growing strongly

In addition, a thriving cultural sector attracts tourists and creates jobs in cities that have lost traditional industries, so it can contribute to the economy as well as to quality of life.

false economy

a saving that ends up costing more in the long run

In my opinion, the priority should be essential services, but cutting arts funding entirely would be a false economy.

enrich

to improve the quality of something

A relatively small investment, directed especially towards free access and education, can enrich the lives of many citizens and support local economies, which is a worthwhile return on public money.

negative externalities

harmful side effects of actions affecting third parties

While some argue that personal freedom should be absolute, I believe that government intervention is necessary when individual choices impose substantial negative externalities on the broader community.

systemic costs

expenses that affect the whole of a system

fiscal policy

government actions regarding taxation and public spending

By incentivising healthier consumption patterns through fiscal policy, the state protects its citizens from preventable diseases while simultaneously reducing the long-term economic burden on public medical facilities.

personal agency

the capacity of individuals to act independently

Conversely, overstepping these boundaries can lead to an intrusive culture that erodes personal agency.

overreach

going beyond the proper limits of one's authority

If the government were to mandate specific exercise regimes or strictly govern dietary intake, it would represent an unacceptable overreach into private life.

civil liberties

basic rights guaranteed to citizens by law

For example, while smoking bans in public spaces are widely accepted because they protect non-smokers from secondhand smoke, regulating what individuals do within their own homes would be a violation of civil liberties that far outweighs any potential collective health benefits.

contentious

causing or likely to cause an intense argument

The degree to which a state should regulate the private lives of its citizens remains a contentious issue.

unsustainable

not able to be maintained at the level

When individuals engage in habits that lead to widespread chronic illnesses, the financial and operational strain on national health services becomes unsustainable.

in person

physically present rather than by phone or online

Increasingly, governments allow citizens to complete tasks such as renewing a passport, paying taxes or registering a business online rather than in person.

left behind

unable to keep up with others or with change

This shift is driven mainly by the desire to cut costs and meet public expectations, and I believe it is a largely positive development, provided that people without internet access are not left behind.

face to face

in each other's presence

Processing an online form requires far fewer staff than operating offices where officials handle paper documents and answer questions face to face, so governments under financial pressure see digital services as a way to save money.

convenient

easy to use and fitting in well with one's plans

Second, citizens have become used to managing their lives online, from shopping to banking, and they expect public services to be equally convenient.

paperwork

forms and documents that must be completed

Applications can be tracked online, which reduces uncertainty, and digital records may reduce errors caused by lost paperwork.

excluded

prevented from taking part or getting access

Elderly people, those on low incomes and people with disabilities may lack the devices, internet connection or skills required, and they risk being excluded from essential services.

sensitive personal information

private details that could cause harm if shared

Online systems also raise concerns about data security, since government databases hold sensitive personal information.

myriad

a countless or extremely great number of things

While critics argue that such expenditure is frivolous given the myriad of domestic hardships, I believe that scientific discovery beyond our atmosphere is a necessary investment for humanity's future progress.

frivolous

not having any serious purpose or real value

While critics argue that such expenditure is frivolous given the myriad of domestic hardships, I believe that scientific discovery beyond our atmosphere is a necessary investment for humanity's future progress.

overlooks

failing to notice or consider something important

However, viewing space exploration solely as a drain on resources overlooks the indirect benefits of such research.

necessitates

to make something necessary as a result

The pursuit of knowledge regarding other planets often necessitates breakthroughs in materials science, robotics, and telecommunications.

endeavour

an attempt to achieve a goal or objective

In summary, while the imperative to solve current social problems is clear, it should not come at the expense of scientific endeavour.

allocates

to distribute resources or money for specific purposes

Determining how a nation allocates its public funds is a subject of significant debate.

bedrock

the fundamental principle or basis of something

Advocates for prioritising health care contend that a robust medical system is the bedrock of societal welfare.

absenteeism

the practice of regularly staying away from work

For instance, countries with comprehensive public health initiatives often report higher life expectancy and lower absenteeism rates in the workplace, which directly bolsters the national economy.

bolsters

to support or strengthen a specific situation

For instance, countries with comprehensive public health initiatives often report higher life expectancy and lower absenteeism rates in the workplace, which directly bolsters the national economy.

prosperity

the state of being successful and flourishing financially

On the other hand, many argue that funds should be directed toward infrastructure or education to ensure long-term prosperity.

prerequisite

a thing that is required as a condition

Therefore, I believe that health care should be treated as the foremost priority in national budgeting, as it is the prerequisite for all other forms of development.

expenditure

the action of spending funds on something

This essay will examine both perspectives before arguing that the health sector should remain the primary focus of government expenditure.

justification

a good reason for doing something

The main justification for higher rates is fairness.

substantially

to a large degree

Moreover, high earners often benefit substantially from public investment, including educated employees, reliable transport and a stable legal system that protects their businesses and property.

social cohesion

the bonds that keep members of a society united

When the gap between rich and poor grows very wide, it can weaken social cohesion and limit opportunities for children from poorer families.

revenue

money that a government receives, mainly from taxes

Revenue raised from high earners can fund schools, healthcare and training programmes that give everyone a fairer chance to succeed.

disadvantaged

having less money and fewer opportunities than others

For example, money raised in this way could pay for free early-years education, which helps disadvantaged children start school on an equal footing with their classmates.

on an equal footing

with the same rights and chances as others

For example, money raised in this way could pay for free early-years education, which helps disadvantaged children start school on an equal footing with their classmates.

entrepreneurs

people who start and run their own businesses

If rates become excessive, some highly skilled professionals and entrepreneurs may move abroad, reduce their working hours or find ways to avoid tax, which could actually reduce government revenue.

neglected

not given enough care or attention

In my opinion, cities should not be neglected, but greater investment in rural areas is necessary for a fair and balanced country.

sparsely populated

having very few people living in an area

A new hospital or railway line in a large city serves far more people than the same investment in a sparsely populated region.

engines of economic growth

the main sources of a country's increasing wealth

Cities are also the main engines of economic growth, attracting businesses and creating jobs, so improving their infrastructure can boost the whole national economy.

infrastructure

basic systems such as roads, power and communications

Cities are also the main engines of economic growth, attracting businesses and creating jobs, so improving their infrastructure can boost the whole national economy.

spreading money thinly

dividing money among so many uses that each gets too little

From this perspective, spreading money thinly across remote areas wastes resources that could deliver greater benefits elsewhere.

broadband

a fast internet connection

Fast broadband, for example, would allow rural residents to work remotely, start online businesses and access education without leaving home.

sustainable

able to continue over a long period

Although cities need continued investment, a country in which opportunity exists only in a few urban centres is neither fair nor sustainable.

fallibility

the tendency to make mistakes or be wrong

Primarily, the inherent fallibility of the legal system renders the death penalty morally unacceptable.

irreversible

something that cannot be changed or fixed back

If an innocent person is executed, the state commits an irreversible violation of human rights that cannot be rectified.

exoneration

officially clearing someone of blame for a crime

For example, the development of DNA profiling has led to the exoneration of numerous individuals on death row in the United States, highlighting that judicial errors are not merely theoretical but frequent enough to make state-sanctioned killing a dangerous gamble.

empirical

based on observation or scientific experience rather than theory

Furthermore, there is little empirical evidence to suggest that capital punishment serves as a superior deterrent compared to life imprisonment.

deterrent

something that discourages someone from doing an action

Furthermore, there is little empirical evidence to suggest that capital punishment serves as a superior deterrent compared to life imprisonment.

abolition

the formal act of ending a system or practice

Moving towards abolition reflects a commitment to higher ethical standards and human rights.

rehabilitate

to restore someone to a normal or healthy life

Justice should be defined by the capacity to correct errors and rehabilitate individuals, rather than by the state’s power to end lives.

centralisation

the concentration of power in a single central authority

In my view, this centralisation exists mainly for reasons of fairness and efficiency, but local communities should be given greater control over decisions that directly affect their daily lives.

provision

the act of supplying a service

If each area made its own decisions about education or healthcare, the quality of services might vary widely, and residents of poorer regions could receive worse provision.

coordination

organising different groups so they work together well

Finally, large projects such as motorways and railway networks cross many local boundaries and require coordination at a national level.

have more say

to have more influence over a decision

Nevertheless, I believe local communities should have more say.

overlook

to fail to notice or consider something

For example, a town might need a new bus route to connect a housing estate with its main employer, a priority that national planners could easily overlook.

public consultations

processes in which the public is asked for its views

When residents are involved in such decisions, through elected local councils or public consultations, the results are more likely to suit real needs, and people feel a greater sense of ownership over their neighbourhood.

sense of ownership

a feeling of personal responsibility for something

When residents are involved in such decisions, through elected local councils or public consultations, the results are more likely to suit real needs, and people feel a greater sense of ownership over their neighbourhood.

visible presence

being easily seen in a place, especially by the public

A visible presence also reassures residents, who may feel safer walking home at night, and allows officers to build relationships with local people, who are then more willing to report suspicious behaviour.

vandalism

deliberate damage to public or private property

When officers are visible in town centres, on public transport and in residential areas, potential offenders are more likely to think twice before committing crimes such as shoplifting, vandalism or street robbery.

reassures

makes someone feel less worried

A visible presence also reassures residents, who may feel safer walking home at night, and allows officers to build relationships with local people, who are then more willing to report suspicious behaviour.

escalate

to become more serious or intense

In neighbourhoods where officers know shopkeepers and residents by name, problems can often be dealt with before they escalate.

prospects

chances of future success, especially in work

A teenager with no qualifications and no prospects may simply wait until officers have moved on.

opportunistic

done because a chance suddenly appears, not planned in advance

In conclusion, increasing police numbers on the streets is a useful measure that can deter opportunistic crime and reassure the public.

deter

to discourage someone from doing something

In conclusion, increasing police numbers on the streets is a useful measure that can deter opportunistic crime and reassure the public.

proportionate

matching the size or seriousness of something

Those who stress punishment argue that justice requires offenders to suffer a consequence proportionate to the harm they have caused.

regime

the set of rules and conditions under which a place is run

Victims and their families often feel that a comfortable prison regime with generous privileges fails to reflect the seriousness of the crime.

liberty

the freedom to live as you choose

From this perspective, the loss of liberty and the hardship of prison life are the whole point of the sentence.

idleness

the state of having nothing useful to do

If inmates spend years in idleness, they are likely to return to crime, which creates new victims.

reoffend

to commit another crime after being punished for an earlier one

A former inmate who has learned a trade and has a job waiting is far less likely to reoffend than one who leaves with no skills and no support.

rehabilitation

helping someone return to a normal, law-abiding life

In my opinion, punishment is an unavoidable part of imprisonment, but rehabilitation should be its central aim.

urbanisation

The process of people moving to live in cities

Advocates for faster public transportation highlight the necessity of keeping pace with urbanisation and economic expansion.

metropolis

A very large, busy city or urban area

For instance, the expansion of high-speed metro lines in Tokyo has been instrumental in managing the movement of millions, proving that speed and efficiency are essential for maintaining the functionality of a modern metropolis.

rolling stock

The vehicles used on a railway, like trains

Improving the passenger experience by upgrading rolling stock, increasing service frequency, and subsidising fares directly benefits low-income households who rely on these services daily.

subsidising

Providing money to pay for part of costs

Improving the passenger experience by upgrading rolling stock, increasing service frequency, and subsidising fares directly benefits low-income households who rely on these services daily.

ridership

The number of people who use public transport

A successful example of this is seen in Tallinn, where the implementation of fare-free public transport significantly increased ridership, demonstrating that affordability is a powerful tool for encouraging sustainable travel habits.

equitable

Fair and impartial treatment for all people involved

It is more equitable for governments to prioritise the affordability and reliability of existing networks.

alleviates

Makes a problem or suffering less severe

precedence

The condition of being considered more important

Some argue that governments should prioritise high-speed transit networks, whereas others contend that lowering fares and improving the quality of existing services should take precedence.

precautions

actions taken in advance to avoid danger

If residents can see that someone living nearby has been convicted of fraud or violent crime, they may take sensible precautions, such as being cautious about lending money or leaving children unsupervised.

public shame

embarrassment caused by others knowing about one's wrongdoing

Publicity may also act as a deterrent, since many people fear public shame more than a fine.

conviction

an official decision by a court that someone is guilty

A business owner tempted to cheat customers, for example, might reconsider if a conviction would be visible to anyone searching his name.

indefinitely

for a period with no fixed end

Once information is placed online, it can remain accessible indefinitely, even after an offender has served the sentence and changed their behaviour.

legitimate

legal and acceptable

This makes it extremely difficult for former offenders to find jobs or housing, and people who are excluded from legitimate work are more likely to return to crime.

without context

without the background information needed to understand something

Finally, there is a danger that online records are shared without context, so that a person convicted of a minor offence many years ago is treated as a serious threat.

on balance

after considering all the facts

On balance, I believe the disadvantages outweigh the advantages.

adolescents

young people who are developing from children into adults

The main reason for my position is that adolescents are not fully mature decision-makers.

impulsively

without thinking carefully about what might happen

Teenagers are far more likely than adults to act impulsively, to underestimate risk and to give in to pressure from friends or older gang members.

hardened criminals

people who have committed crimes for a long time and are unlikely to change

In such institutions, they mix with hardened criminals, lose access to schooling and often leave with no qualifications and a network of criminal contacts.

custody

the state of being kept in a prison or secure place by the authorities

By contrast, youth justice systems that combine secure custody with education, counselling and close supervision after release give young people a realistic chance of building a lawful life.

vocational training

teaching that prepares someone for a particular job or trade

A teenager who completes vocational training in a youth facility may leave with a trade, whereas the same person in an adult prison might leave with nothing but a criminal identity.

premeditated

planned in advance rather than done on the spur of the moment

That said, a small number of cases, particularly premeditated killings by older teenagers, may justify long sentences to protect the public.

held accountable

made to accept responsibility for what one has done

In general, however, young offenders should be held accountable through a separate system designed to reform them, since this serves both the individual and society far better than adult punishment.

claim

to ask for money that you have a right to receive

Because people are living longer, many governments are raising the age at which citizens can claim a state pension.

affordable

cheap enough to be paid for

The main advantage is that it helps to keep pension systems affordable.

life expectancy

the number of years a person is likely to live

As life expectancy rises and birth rates fall, there are fewer workers supporting each retired person, and without reform the cost would have to be met by much higher taxes or cuts to other services.

spreads this burden

shares a heavy responsibility among more people

Raising the pension age spreads this burden more fairly between generations.

physically demanding

needing a lot of bodily strength or effort

People in physically demanding jobs, such as construction workers or nurses, may suffer from health problems that make continued work painful or impossible.

well in advance

a long time before something happens

Nevertheless, governments must reduce the disadvantages by announcing changes well in advance, offering earlier support to those whose health prevents them from working, and encouraging employers to retrain and retain older staff.

retain

to keep someone or something

Nevertheless, governments must reduce the disadvantages by announcing changes well in advance, offering earlier support to those whose health prevents them from working, and encouraging employers to retrain and retain older staff.

antisocial behaviour

actions that harm or upset other people in a community

In this situation, minor antisocial behaviour can gradually develop into more serious offending.

glamorise

to make something seem more exciting or attractive than it is

Social media can intensify this pressure, since videos that glamorise violence or easy money circulate quickly among young audiences.

role models

people whose behaviour others copy

To tackle the problem, local authorities should invest in affordable activities such as sports leagues, music projects and youth centres open in the evenings, which offer both supervision and positive role models.

mentoring

guidance and support given by a more experienced person

Schools also have an important role: identifying pupils who are frequently absent or excluded, and providing mentoring before they drift into crime, can prevent problems from becoming entrenched.

entrenched

firmly established and difficult to change

Schools also have an important role: identifying pupils who are frequently absent or excluded, and providing mentoring before they drift into crime, can prevent problems from becoming entrenched.

early intervention

action taken at the first signs of a problem

Where crimes are committed, early intervention that involves both the young person and their family is likely to be more effective than detention.

detention

the state of being kept in a secure place as a punishment

Where crimes are committed, early intervention that involves both the young person and their family is likely to be more effective than detention.

fraudster

a person who tricks others in order to get money

A fraudster can send thousands of convincing text messages in minutes, and even if only a tiny proportion of recipients respond, the scheme is profitable.

prosecution

the process of taking someone to court for a crime

A second cause is that offenders are often based in a different country from their victims, which makes investigation slow and prosecution rare.

awareness campaigns

organised efforts to inform the public about a risk

Governments and banks could run awareness campaigns explaining common tactics, such as messages that create a false sense of urgency or ask the recipient to move money to a 'safe account'.

tactics

methods used to achieve a particular aim

Governments and banks could run awareness campaigns explaining common tactics, such as messages that create a false sense of urgency or ask the recipient to move money to a 'safe account'.

fraudulent

dishonest and intended to deceive people

At the same time, technology companies should be required to remove fraudulent advertisements and fake websites quickly once they are reported.

trace

to find where someone or something is

On an international level, closer cooperation between police forces would make it easier to trace and prosecute offenders who operate across borders.

thrives

grows or succeeds strongly

In conclusion, online fraud thrives because it is cheap, low-risk and aimed at people who are unaware of the dangers.

extravagant

Lacking restraint in spending money or using resources

While some argue that such pursuits are an extravagant misuse of taxpayers' money, others contend that space exploration is a vital endeavour for humanity's future.

ripple effects

Continuing and spreading results of an event

By pushing the frontiers of what is possible, space agencies foster a culture of scientific advancement that has positive ripple effects across various domestic industries.

mitigate

Make something less severe, serious, or painful

A pertinent example is the ongoing global climate crisis, which requires immense financial commitment to mitigate; critics suggest that if these funds were redirected from space exploration to renewable energy projects, the planet would be far closer to achieving sustainability.

mutually exclusive

Two things that cannot both be true simultaneously

In my view, although domestic issues require immediate attention, the pursuit of extraterrestrial knowledge is not mutually exclusive with solving earthly problems.

prioritised

Designated as more important than other things

On the other hand, many taxpayers argue that public funds should be prioritised for urgent domestic problems, such as homelessness, healthcare, and environmental degradation.

sustainability

Avoiding depletion of natural resources to maintain balance

A pertinent example is the ongoing global climate crisis, which requires immense financial commitment to mitigate; critics suggest that if these funds were redirected from space exploration to renewable energy projects, the planet would be far closer to achieving sustainability.

elite athletes

the very best sportspeople in a country

Public funding for sport can be directed in two broad ways: towards elite athletes competing for international success, or towards facilities that ordinary people can use.

collective identity

a shared sense of who a group of people are

When athletes win medals at major championships, people across the country share in the celebration, and these moments can create a strong sense of collective identity.

take up

to start doing a new activity

Supporters also claim that successful athletes act as role models who inspire young people to take up sport.

advocates

people who publicly support a particular policy

On the other hand, advocates of community sport believe public money should serve the whole population.

targeted support

help directed at a specific group

Nevertheless, some targeted support for exceptional talent is reasonable, particularly when it ensures that ability rather than family wealth determines who represents the country.

grassroots

at the level of ordinary people rather than leaders or professionals

A strong grassroots system, in any case, is likely to produce future champions.

incarceration

the state of being confined in prison

When legal systems enforce rigorous sentencing, potential offenders are more likely to refrain from illegal activities due to fear of incarceration or heavy fines.

transgressions

acts that go against a law or rule

This approach reinforces the concept that society has clear boundaries and that transgressions will be met with firm consequences.

recidivism

the tendency of a criminal to reoffend

A clear example of this is seen in countries that have invested heavily in prison education programmes, where the recidivism rate significantly drops as former inmates gain the qualifications needed to reintegrate into the workforce.

proactive

creating change rather than reacting to events

This proactive strategy addresses the root cause of the issue rather than merely reacting to the symptoms.

reintegrate

to restore someone to a former social position

A clear example of this is seen in countries that have invested heavily in prison education programmes, where the recidivism rate significantly drops as former inmates gain the qualifications needed to reintegrate into the workforce.

byproduct

an incidental result of a larger process

Conversely, those who favour education argue that crime is often a byproduct of social inequality and a lack of prospects.

municipal

Relating to the government or affairs of cities

The primary benefit of municipal surveillance is its effectiveness in deterring illegal behaviour and facilitating the prosecution of offenders.

irrefutable

Impossible to deny or disprove as being true

Furthermore, high-definition footage often serves as an irrefutable source of evidence for the police.

perpetual

Never ending or changing; occurring very frequently

Conversely, the constant monitoring of citizens can lead to a sense of perpetual surveillance, which fundamentally challenges the right to privacy.

curtailed

Reduced in extent or quantity; imposed restrictions

When people feel that their every movement is tracked, their willingness to participate in peaceful protests or express unconventional views in public may be curtailed.

chilling effect

Discouragement of legitimate activity due to fear

This chilling effect on social behaviour is a significant drawback.

pertinent

Relevant or applicable to a particular matter

A pertinent example is the use of facial recognition technology in some cities, which has prompted public outcry due to the potential for state overreach and the unauthorised collection of sensitive biometric data, ultimately stifling personal expression.

intrusive

Causing disruption or annoyance through being unwelcome

Striking a balance requires robust legislation that ensures surveillance is used exclusively for public safety rather than the intrusive monitoring of law-abiding citizens.

obesity

the condition of being extremely overweight

Several governments have introduced a tax on sugary soft drinks in an attempt to reduce obesity and tooth decay.

tooth decay

damage to teeth, often caused by sugar

Several governments have introduced a tax on sugary soft drinks in an attempt to reduce obesity and tooth decay.

nutrition labels

information on packaging about what food contains

Manufacturers may also respond by changing their recipes to lower the sugar content and avoid the tax, which improves products for everyone, including those who never read nutrition labels.

fall most heavily on

affect one group more than others

Critics argue that such taxes fall most heavily on low-income households, which spend a larger share of their income on food and drink.

interference

involvement in something that is not one's business

In addition, some people resent what they see as government interference in personal choices, believing that adults should be free to decide what they consume.

diet-related illness

a disease caused partly by what people eat and drink

The concern about low-income households is significant, but these families also suffer disproportionately from diet-related illness, so they may gain the most from healthier choices, particularly if the revenue is spent in their communities.

labelling

the practice of putting information on products

Combined with education and clearer labelling, a tax on sugary drinks is a reasonable and effective public health measure.

kept pace with

increased at the same rate as

The most fundamental cause is that housing supply has not kept pace with demand.

planning restrictions

official rules that limit what can be built and where

Cities attract people because they offer jobs and services, but planning restrictions, a shortage of available land and slow approval processes often limit the number of new homes that can be built.

inevitably

in a way that cannot be avoided

When many people compete for a limited number of properties, prices inevitably rise.

social housing

homes provided at low rent by the government or non-profit groups

Secondly, they could fund the construction of social housing with rents linked to local incomes, ensuring that essential workers such as nurses and teachers can live near their workplaces.

speculation

buying something in the hope of selling it later for a profit

Thirdly, higher taxes on empty homes and on owners of multiple properties would discourage speculation and encourage owners to rent out or sell unused housing.

tenants

people who rent a home from a landlord

Finally, regulations limiting sharp rent increases could give tenants greater security.

investment-driven

caused mainly by people seeking a financial return

In conclusion, unaffordable urban housing is largely the result of limited supply and investment-driven demand.

bystanders

people who watch an event without taking part in it

In many legal systems, victims feel like bystanders in a process that is supposed to deliver justice on their behalf.

acknowledges

accepts or recognises that something is true or important

Allowing them to describe how a crime has affected them, for example through a written statement read in court, acknowledges their suffering and may help judges understand the full impact of an offence.

restorative justice

a process in which offenders and victims meet to repair harm

Some victims also find it valuable to meet offenders through supervised restorative justice schemes, where they can ask questions and receive an apology.

burgled

having had one's home broken into and property stolen

One person who has been burgled might want the offender imprisoned for years, while another might be satisfied with compensation.

compensation

money paid to someone for loss or harm

One person who has been burgled might want the offender imprisoned for years, while another might be satisfied with compensation.

impartial

not supporting any side; fair

Impartial judges, guided by sentencing rules and the circumstances of each case, are far better placed to ensure that punishments are proportionate.

equal before the law

treated by the law in exactly the same way as everyone else

If sentences depended on such reactions, two offenders who committed identical crimes could receive very different punishments, which would violate the principle that everyone is equal before the law.

come to the attention of

become known to

A significant proportion of crimes never come to the attention of the police, which means that offenders go unpunished and the true scale of some problems remains hidden.

harassment

repeated behaviour that frightens or upsets someone

Others, particularly victims of domestic abuse or harassment, may be afraid of the offender, especially if that person is a partner, relative or neighbour.

deceived

tricked into believing something false

Some victims also feel embarrassed, for instance after being deceived by a scam, and prefer to keep the experience private.

coming forward

offering information to the authorities

In certain communities, a lack of trust in the police, sometimes based on past experience, discourages people from coming forward at all.

anonymous

without giving one's name

Third, specialist support services and anonymous reporting options would help victims who fear retaliation.

retaliation

harmful action taken against someone in revenge

Third, specialist support services and anonymous reporting options would help victims who fear retaliation.

mistrust

a feeling that someone cannot be relied upon

In conclusion, crimes go unreported largely because of doubt, fear and mistrust.